The effect of drugs on heart rate: Research experiment

The mental picture of drugs on shopping m only in solely score Research experimentThe water flea cyclops genus Pulex (see figure 1) is a refined (1.1-3.5mm retentive ) crustacean commonly found in ponds in the United Kingdom. The full taxonomy of Daphnia pulux is as followsKingdom BranchiopodaPhylum DiplostracaClass CladoceraOrder AnomopodaFamily DaphniidaeGenus DaphniaSubgenus pulexFigure 1. Daphnia pulex, showing the clear exoskeleton and inside the body (Cladoceran website 2005)Whilst being crustaceans and having an exoskeleton Daphnia ar easy to study as their exoskeleton is really clear so it is attainable to see through it and study the working of the inside of their body. In particular it is possible to see the flow of the circulatory system and the pith beating. indeedce they are implementful to test the loads of specific drugs on moment, as it is easy to see the assortments via an obvious change in shopping centerbeat.Daphnia have been employ in the present experiment as they are readily available and it is simple to study the effects of drugs on their systems. They are similarly robust to a variety of chemicals being present in their environment so dope be utilize to assess the effects of these chemicals with out(a) fear that the chemicals go out kill them vociferously.aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), inebriant (ethanol), and caffein are drugs that all commonly employ by people. All 3 drugs have an effect on the human feeling, mostly through indirect effects on the circulation and detailors that affect circulation eg platelet clotting. intoxicant coifs a dismantleing of heart beat due to expanding the veins through vasodilatation. Aspirin excessively lowers the heart locate via its effects on platelets and the way that they cause veins to constrict. Caffeine, however, acts to add heart beat.It is unfortunately not practical to test the effect of any of the drugs on the heartbeat of people as the drugs have a lot of new(prenominal) effects within the body as well. Instead Daphnia are use as they have a venial body so the drug effects are less widespread and the effect on the heart is easy to assess. The effects are also evident very quickly so it is possible to carry out a large recite of investigations in a comparatively short space of time.HypothesisThe experimental hypotheses for severally of the three drugs are as followsAspirin go forth cause the heart aim of Daphnia to lower in a concentration underage manner. Alcohol testament cause the heart lay of Daphnia to lower in a concentration dependent manner. Caffeine will cause heart rate of Daphnia to increase in a concentration dependent manner.The null hypothesis in all solecisms is that each(prenominal) of the drugs will have no effect on the concentration rate of Daphnia.VariablesIn order to see whether it is actually the drugs that are causing the change in the heart rate of Daphnia the only variable that can change i s the concentration of the drug. As well as this each drug will have to be tested separately to keep back current that it is only the effect of that drug which is causing the change, if any. A fourth set of results also involve to be taken, which is the heart rate of water flea without any of the drugs added at all.For this experiment the independent variable will be the drug concentration. An independent variable is 1 that is chosen and set specifically by the experimentor.For this experiment the dependent variable the sensation that changes as a result of the independent variable changing will be the heart rate of the Daphnia.Constant variables will beThe add up of Daphnia (approx 100)The volume of water (100ml)The temperature ( analogous room temperature of approx 21 C in all human faces)The species of Daphnia (Daphnia pulux)The amount of water transferred to microscope slide for each test (1ml)The same length of time the Daphnia would be left in the chemical (1 hour) m ethodDaphnia will be collected from a pond, using a fine mesh sive and kept in a pick uped with pond water until they can be counted and the correct number can be transferred to a petri dish containing 100ml of distilled water for each experiment. Distilled water will be used so that there are no other chemicals present which great power have an effect on heart rate. Approximately 100 Daphnia will be used for each experiment, although it would not be possible to count exactly that number so an approximate number will be used in each case. Aspirin will come in a readily available over the counter soluble form (Boots 300mg soluble aspirin)Caffeine will also come in a readily available over the counter form of ProPlus (50 mg Caffeine)Alcohol will come from vodka (Smirnoff Blue label 45% vol).The drug will be added to the distilled water in the petri dish before adding the cyclops and stirred with a clean glass rod to make sure that it is fully dissolved and spread throughout the li quid. Then the daphnia will be transferred to the petri dish using a pipette.Drugs will be in the quantities shown in put overs 1-3 dodge 1. A send back showing the number of caffeine tablets used in each experiment and the resulting caffeine concentration tabularise 2. A table showing the number of aspirin tablets used in each experiment and the resulting aspirin concentrationTable 3. A table showing the amount of vodka used in each experiment and the resulting alcohol concentrationThere would actually be only 1 control experiment, to check for differences caused by the drug, so the conk row of each table actually corresponds to the same experiment, where there is just water in the petri dish and no added chemicals.As the daphnia are small organisms with a relatively permeable exoskeleton they would be able to absorb the caffeine present in the water and it could have its effect upon the body.In each case the Daphnia would be left in the water and drug for a time of 1 hour to e nsure that the drug has had any effect. As the Daphnia are only going to be used for a short period of time they would receive no food as it would not be necessary.Whilst whole Daphnia are visible to the naked eye, a microscope is necessary to see the actually heart beats. and then a clean pipette will be used to transfer a droplet of the treated water and daphnia onto a microscope slide. This would then be covered using a cover miscue to pr reddent the liquid from moving. This will then be looked at under the microscope and the number of propagation the Daphnias heart beats per minute recorded. apiece time that the heart beat is counted it will be repeated 3 times to obtain an total. Different microscope slides would be used in each case to avoid cross contamination by different drugs or drug concentrations.Equipment listFine mesh sievePlastic container to store daphnia inDistilled water (13 x 100 ml)13 clean plastic pipettes13 clean petri dishes13 microscope slides and cover slipsLight microscopeCaffeine tablets (ProPlus)Aspirin tablets (Boots soluble aspirin)Alcohol (Smirnoff blue label vodka)Measuring cylinderRisk assessmentThere are a number of specific areas which involve risk within this experiment. These are the initial collection of daphnia, the handling of daphnia and the handling of chemicals. Specific risk assessment are as followsIf alcohol / drug is ingested then rinse out mouth straightway and seek medical advice.If alcohol / drug solution is spilt on clothes rinse affected area and remove clothes if necessary.If alcohol / drug solution gets into eyes then rinse out immediately and seek medical advice.An adult (over 18) must purchase the vodka and be present during its use. maintenance should be taken when obtaining the daphnia from a pond and an adult should ideally do the collecting.If pond water is ingested then rinse out mouth immediately and seek medical advice.ResultsIt was found that, as Daphnia heart beat was very fast it was easie r and more reliable to count in 15 arcminute sections and then exchange this to beats per minute. So this was done in all cases.The heart rate of daphnia under control conditions was found to be an average of 350 beats / minute. The results for each of the 3 drugs are considered separately below.CaffeineThe results from the experiment to investigate the effect of caffeine upon the heart rate of Daphnia are shown in figure 2 below.Figure 2. The effect of caffeine on the heart rate of Daphnia Pulex (average of 3 counts) It can be seen that there is a positive correlation between caffeine concentration and Daphnia heart rate. The percentage increase in heart rate, when compared to control, is shown in table 4 below.Table 4. A table showing the effect of increasing caffeine concentration on daphnia heart rateAspirinUnfortunately the concentrations of aspirin used actually killed the daphnia whilst they were in the solution for the required hour. Therefore it was necessary to alter the concentrations and repeat the experiment. As the daphnia died at all concentrations of aspirin even 30 mg / litre must have been too concentrated for them. Therefore the concentration was reduced to 10% of original values, and the experiment repeated. The new concentrations were obtained by diluting the dissolved tablets in more distilled water, eg 10 times the amount to obtain concentrations of 1/10. unfortunately, due to time constraints, the counts could not be repeated 3 times so the figure are for a single count at each concentration.The results from these new concentrations are shown in figure 3 below.Figure 3. The effect of aspirin on the heart rate of DaphniaIt can be seen from figure 3 that there is no particular pattern to the results, other than the concomitant that aspirin is linked to a reduction in heart rate. However this reduction does not appear to be concentration dependent, or at to the lowest degree not at the concentrations used in this experiment.AlcoholThe effect of increasing alcohol concentration is shown in figure 4. Figure 4. The effect of alcohol on the heart rate of Daphnia (average of 3 counts)It can be seen that alcohol had quite a large effect on the heart rate of daphnia and there was an inverse correlation between alcohol concentration and heart rate. The percentage decrease in heart rate, when compared to control, is shown in table 5 below.Table 5. A table showing the effect of increasing alcohol concentration on daphnia heart rateStatistical compend of resultsIt was not possible to undertake unblemished statistical analysis of the aspirin results as only 1 count was taken at each concentration level on the repeated experiment. However it was possible to undertake a t test analysis on the alcohol and caffeine results, using the original data as opposed to the mean results shown in the graphs. Statistical analysis was carried out using the software available from Graphpad quickcalcs. These statistically analysed results a re shown in table 6 and 7 below.Table 6. A table to show the relative statistical significance of varying concentrations of caffeine upon the heart rate of daphniaTable 7. A table to show the relative statistical significance of varying concentrations of alcohol upon the heart rate of daphniaDiscussionThe results from this experiment indicate that both caffeine and alcohol affect heart rate of daphnia. Aspirin may affect heart rate just now the results obtained here do not provide enough license to support this view fully.Why does caffeine affect heart rate?The results from this experiment show that caffeine causes heart rate to increase by just about 0.05% per mg of caffeine. Whilst it cannot be known exactly why this happens there are various possible reasons.Caffeine if a methylxanthine which acts by inhibiting the enzyme (phosphodiesterase) that metabolises campsite. The resulting rise in campy levels has the same effect as increasing levels of adenylate cyclase, which is o ne of the principal effects of adrenaline. Adrenaline is known to increase heart rate via its effects on the 1 adrenoceptors so it is credibly that caffeine has a similar effect. Whilst these effects are known about in humans, and daphnia are not the same organisms, it is give carely that the effects are mediated for similar reasons eg the involvement of enzymes and inhibition / stimulation of these.It is possible that the effects of caffeine were not as pronounced as might have occurred due to a reflex reaction. In humans an increase in heart rate is often rapidly followed by a automatic compensatory mechanism to slow the heart rate again. This compensation can involve the veins dilating and a stimulation of enzymes such as phosphodiesterase in order to reduce cAMP levels. In the case of the daphnia it might have been the case that a more significant rise in heart rate occurred as in short as the caffeine was absorbed by the daphnia but then there was a compensatory mechanism t o reverse this effect. However as the solution of caffeine was present around the daphnia for the whole duration of the experiment then this is unlikely as each time new caffeine was absorbed it would cause heart rate to increase, and the daphnias system would not be able to constantly undergo the reflexive compensations.How does aspirin affect heart rateAspirin has its principal effects on an enzyme called cyclo-oxygenase. Aspirin acts by binding to the active site of the enzyme, thus preventing it from binding to the eiocosanoid and having its required effect. The inhibition is irreversible as aspirin binds permanently to the active site of the enzyme. Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) is the main enzyme involved in the conversion of eiocosanoids found in membrane fatty acids, into the incitive mediators prostaglandins and leuoktrienes. COX acts to convert arachadonic acid into the prostaglandin precursor prostaglandin G2 and also to convert this precursor into prostaglandin H2. It is from P GH2 that the main inflammatory mediators are generated. Therefore the prevention of COX prevents even the first part of the inflammatory cycle from taking place. Whilst it is not immediately obvious how the prevention of inflammatory mediators should reduce heart rate, it becomes obvious when the effect of the inflammation on heart rate is known. Whilst each individual prostanoid has slightly different effects, the overall one if to cause vasoconstriction and also an increase in myocardial contractility. This latter particularly results in heart rate being increased as the heart muscle in contracting more frequently. This means that decreases heart rate by preventing this increased heart muscle contraction, as well as preventing the vasculature from constricting so much.Again, it is the effects of aspirin in humans that is known about, but it could be expected that the effect is similar in daphnia.Why might alcohol affect heart rateIt is not known exactly how ethanol acts to decreas e heart rate, but it is believed to be a knock on effect from the changes in peripheral vasculature. Ethanol is known to cause vadodilatation eg dilation of blood vessels. If blood vessels are dilated then there is more space thus a greater volume for blood so the heart has to beat fewer times to deliver the same amount of blood.It is also possible that ethanol has its effects on heart rate via a rally nervous system effect. Ethanol initially increase catecholamine release, including dopamine. This acts to stimulate heart rate. However following this initial effect ethanol actually reduces the concentration of catecholamines, principally noradrenaline, by increasing the rate at which it is take away from cells. As the daphnia had been left in the ethanol containing water for an hour it would be expected that they had reached this second stage by the time heart rate was being measured. However it is possible that the conflict between the initial and subsequent effects of alcohol c ould be the reason why the results did not follow a particular pattern.Sources of errorWhilst statistical significance appears to be present in a number of results it is very difficult to be certain with such a small population number. In order to be more certain of results, a much larger sample size should be used in each case. When a result has been shown to be significant and is actually due to chance this is known as a type I statistical error.Temperature is other variable that affects the heart rate of daphnia, evident by the fact that daphnia can be preserved alive at low temperatures due to a slowing of heart rate. Therefore it is possible that the heat from the light microscope lamp caused an increase in the heart rate. However, as the light was present on each numeration session this variable, whilst possibly affecting heart rate, would affect all counts by a similar amount. Therefore all counts would be raised from what they should be. This would serve to make the result s from caffeine more significant and alcohol less significant. Given that the results from alcohol showed an inverse correlation then this source of error could have only make the results less significant. However in the case of the caffeine it is possible that they were responsible for the change in heart rate observed, rather than the caffeine, as the changes were rather small anyway. If the experiment were to be repeated this could be controlled by divvy upful monitoring of temperature and ensuring that this remained constant throughout the experiment, a variable that was no measured in this experiment.The fact that alcohol had to be used from an initially diluted form, and in a non pure ethanol formulation may have caused the results to be affected. Whilst calculations were made to describe the overall concentration of ethanol into which the daphnia were placed, it is not certain whether this was correct. The alcohol could have contained other chemicals in addition to ethanol which could have affected the daphnia and their heart rate.The formulation of caffeine used was in the form of proplus tablets. These are also not caffeine in a pure format and would contain other padding chemicals such as sugar and talcum powder to make up the tablet. Sugar may well affect the heart rate of daphnia as it is a food stuff for them, and their heart rate may change whilst feeding, or following a substantial amount of food.Whilst daphnia reproduce asexually they are present in male and female forms. It was not possible to specify which gender was being counted on each occasion. It is the females which actually give birth to young. However heavy(predicate) females have a lower heartbeat than non pregnant females and males. Therefore if some of the daphnia that were being counted were actually pregnant females then this could have artificially lowered the heart rate result. Without studying each daphnia and ensuring that all were of the same gender and pregnant / not it is not possible to tell whether this factor adversity affected the results. Whilst the daphnia were held in place loosely on the microscope slide they were not fixed in place. Therefore it was not always possible to check that it was the same daphnia that was being used for the repetitions of counts for each of the drug treatments. It is therefore possible that the variation within each of the 3 counts was due to different daphnia being used, rather than a different heart rate at different times. It was not possible to ascertain how old each daphnia was which may have had an effect on heart rate as juveniles usually have a higher heart rate than older organisms.It was assumed that all daphnia obtained from the pond were actually of the common daphnia pulex species. However it is possible that there were a shuffle of different species within the sample collected. If an organism from a different species was used for each of the counts then this could also give rise to altered result s.EvaluationTheHow Did Whatsapp make up Popular?How Did Whatsapp Become Popular?How did WhatsApp overpower other chatting apps? A research on what reasons made WhatsApp the number 1 chatting app in the past 5 years. seeIn this research, 15 random chat apps users who are from different ages, genders, countries, and educational status filled a survey about their usage and experience of chatting apps. The analysis of the survey showed that 85.7 percent of chatting apps users are addicted to them as they use them for more than three hours per day. most of them prefer Whatsapp for different reasons. 57.1 percent of the users state that privacy is number one priority for them. They look for a chatting app by which they can remain anonymous and their personal information are safe. Another fifty percent of the users said that they prefer WhatsApp because it is easy to use. A friendy user interface make chatting simpler and easier. A chatting app is made to make peoples life easier so it mu st be, it self, simple. Only 42.9 percent of users care about the security of the chatting app they use. They look for a chatting app that had no vulnerabilities that hackers can exploit to hack into their phones. Worth to mention that there is no 100 percent unafraid(p) app or system so no matter how the system platform is protected and well built, still there is a way or some other to hack into it. The last reason for choosing Whatsapp is that it is popular and most people use it. 35.8 percent of users said that no matter how good it is, a messaging app is cipher without plenty of users. They want a chatting app in which they can find their friends and communicate with them.IntroductionWeare in a time in which chatting apps and social media became of the necessarily of ourdaily life. Whether they agree or not, people depend on chatting apps so muchon their life to the extent that they can not live without. They use them inall aspects of life eg. get in touch with their friends and relatives, todiscuss matters of business, and to explain a lesson to a classmate. Beside theinstant messaging, the group chats that people create with friends andcolleagues sustain them to share their ideas, information, point of views, andfeelings with each other. The trend ofinstant messaging apps lead to the establishment of umpteen chatting apps until itturned into a business in which many counterparts contend each other tocreate an coat that can attract the majority of users by offering themthe features that they look for. One of these chatting applications isWhatsApp. It was established in 2009 by Brian Acton and Jan Koum with the guidewordSimple. Personal. Real time messaging. The new app came with plenty offeatures like as the ability to make group chats, set broadcast contacts and send unconditioned images, video and audio recording messages. Beside being full of features, easyto use, and a pioneer in its category, it helped people to save money by usingit instead of the regular SMS messages (Short Message Service) so users do nothave to pay extra fees for sending messages. Moreover, it helped makecommunication over barriers much easier and cheaper than it ever been. All ofthese features, and others, made WhatsApp the number one chatting app for the past5 years.Inthis study, I will investigate how did WhatsApp become the number one chattingapp in the world during the past 5 years, what people like on WhatsApp, andwhat circumstances lead to the failure of other chatting apps. I used a surveywhich is filled by 15 random people in different ages, genders, countries, and educationalstatus to see what do they like on chatting apps, WhatsApp specifically, what do they do not like, and what do theyexpect is the future of chatting applications. The survey is analyse and itsresults and foundings are shown at the end of this research paper.Literature reviewMany studies are done about chatting apps, social media, Whatsapp. A study entitled Smartphone application usage amongst students at a South African University,done in the year 2012 by Walter U, Aadilah M, et.al assessed on the usage of smartphones and social media in between users in a South African University. The study showed that students remain online for 16 hours a day and spend about 5 hours per day on their smart phones interacting and communicating with other their friends, colleagues and relatives through social networking applications. This Application (WhatsApp) is highly addictive and can create a great impact on regular users, and apart from that it can supply a trace that becomes difficult to control and cure. Some of the most prominent technological innovations are smart phones, laptops and using the internet. They have greatly affected many aspects of our lives. Today the Internet continues to grow day by day at an incredible speed. About 32.7% of the worlds population has access to the internet. Howe, Yeboah J, Ewur G. (2014) The two researchers also said t hat the main purpose behind this application is to replace SMS with a crossplatform mobile messenger that works on an internet data plan. If you have unlimited text, it is still beneficial as it is a convenient way to avoid international fees that carriers may charge.Mayer,Davis, and Schoorman, (1995) define trust in chatting and social media as thewillingness of a party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party basedon the expectation that the other will perform a particular action grievous tothe trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control that otherparty (p. 712) pull is also key for successful online interactions(Coppola, Hiltz, and Rotter, 2004, Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1998, Meyerson, 1996,Piccoli and Ives, 2003).Trustis also a central component of social exchange theory (Roloff, 1981).Millionsof people have joined social networking sites, adding profiles that revealpersonal information. The reputations of social networking sites has beendiminished by a n umber of incidents publicized by the news media (Chiaramonteand Martinez, 2006, Hass, 2006, Mintz, 2005, Read, 2006), This raise thequestion whether ot not it is possible to join a network of millions of peopleand be able to trust all of them. Of course this does not look plgican. WWecan not trust strangers. Howver people still join networks and reveal theirvery personal information. what role does trust take in the use of socialnetworking sites? Case studyThisstudy is based on a survey in which the responders answer some questions aboutwhat attracts him or her to a chatting app, what features does he or she want,and what aspects does he keep in mined when he choose a chatting appeg.security, privacy, ease to use and popularity of the application. Thissurvey is published in a twitter page. 15 random people were engaged in it. Theyare from different ages, genders, countries, and educational status. Thevariety of the responders should help getting more accurate results andfoundings f or the study. A copy of the survey is attached.Research and survey resultsThe published survey got 15 responses fromwhich I derived these analysis and answer the question of the paper, how didwhatsapp overpower other chatting apps and be number one chatting applicationduring the recent five years?Theresponses showed that 85.7% of users use different chatting apps morethan three hours per day which is considered as dependance. Only 14.3 useinstant messaging apps for only 1-3 hours per day. This is a regular usage. Andnobody from the responders use chatting apps less than an hour a day. Theseresults indicate that people are obviously in addiction with chatting apps nomatter what do they use them for. Whenthe responders were asked about the chatting apps they use, the all putWhatsApp at the top of the list, twitter comes second and Black Berry third.The reasons they all chose WhatsApp is exquisite in the following figure57.1% of the responders said that privacy is number one priority . They want tobe anonymous and their personal information must be inexplicable to the eyes ofstrangers. They ask for privacy options they can enable or disable by theirchoice. Since WhatsApp offer these options, it is their choice. However, childrenand even parents are rarely aware of the probable risks of informationdisclosure through mobile devices. Personal information, such as real-timelocations, photos, and calendar, can be easily leaked via using mobileapplications from mobile devices. (Chen Y et.al) They also claim that userspersonal information has been aggressively collected by different parities frommobile devices.50 percentof the responders said that they prefer WhatsApp because it is easy to use. Afriendy user interface make chatting simpler and easier. A chatting app is madeto make peoples life easier so it must be, it self, simple.Securitycomes in rank 3 of the most beta feature in a chatting application. 42.9%of people voted that whatsapp is secure enough to protec t them againsthackers attacks. Worth to mention that whatsapp was not encrypted, and thoughsecure, until April 2016 (Whatsapp.com).35.8% said that the popularity of chatting app is the fourth most importantfeature. No matter how good it is, a messaging app is nothing without plenty ofusers. Keep in mind that because of the different protocols of chatting apps itis not possible to send a message from a certain app to another. A message mustbe sent and received by the same app. So 35.8 percent of people shutdownChattingapps and social media became parts of modern daily life. Nearly 85.7 percent ofpeople are addicted to use their phones and chat more than 4 hours a day. populate tend to look for a chatting app that respect their privacy and give themthe choice to choose to what extent they are exposed to others. Security isalso another important feature people look for. Ease to use and the popularityof chatting apps can make difference on peoples choices. A simple and popularchatting app is always listed as a good choice to use since it will allow theuser to chat easily with a huge number of people.ReferencesYeboah J, Ewur G. The Impactof whatsApp Messenger Usage on Students Performance in Tertiary Institutionsin Ghana. In journal of Education and Practice. Vol.5 2014.Hindocha, N. InstantInsecurity Security Issues of Instant Messaging. http//www.luisdelgado.es/seguridad/crypt4you/curso_comunicaciones_digitales/documentacion/im_security_issues.pdf. Accessed on 10112016Chen, Y. Zhu, S. Zhou, Y.Xu, H. protect Childrens Personal Information Using Contextual IntegrityTheory to Examine Information Boundary on Mobile Devices. http//cs-sys-1.uis.georgetown.edu/sz303/PIR2015/pir_submission/pir2015_submission_6.pdf.Accessed on 20161110.Dwyer, C. Hiltaz, S.Passerini, K. Trust and Privacy Concern within Social Networking Sites AComparison of Facebook and MySpace.http//aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1849context=amcis2007Accessed on 10112016Schrittwieser, S.Fru hwirt, P. et. al. Guess Whos Texting You? Evaluating the Security ofSmartphone Messaging Applications.http//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.681.9726rep=rep1type=pdfAccessed on 14112016Jisha K, Jebakumar, WhatsappA Trend Setter in Mobile Communication among Chennai Youth. 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